Evaluation of methods for approximating shapes used to synthesize 3D solid textures

ABSTRACT

In modern computer graphics applications, textures play an important role in conveying the appearance of real-world materials. But while surface appearance can often be effectively captured with a photograph, it is difficult to use example imagery to synthesize fully three-dimensional (3D) solid textures that are perceptually similar to their inputs. Specifically, this research focuses on human perception of 3D solid textures composed of aggregate particles in a binding matrix. Holding constant an established algorithm for approximating particle distributions, we examine the problem of estimating particle shape. We consider four methods for approximating plausible particle shapes—including two methods of our own contribution. We compare the performance of these methods under a variety of input conditions using automated, perceptually motivated metrics, as well as a psychophysical experiment. In the course of assessing the relative performance of the four algorithms, we also evaluate the reliability of the automated metrics in predicting the results of the experiment.

REFERENCES

• 1: Nina Amenta , Sunghee Choi , Ravi Krishna Kolluri, The power crust, Proceedings of the sixth ACM symposium on Solid modeling and applications, p.249-266, May 2001, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States [doi>10.1145/376957.376986]
• 2: Ben-Shahar, O., Huggins, P., Izo, T., and Zucker, S. 2003. Cotrical connections and early visual function: Intra- and inter-columnar processing. Journal of Physiology--Paris 97, 2--3, 191--208.
• 3: Binford, T. 1971. Visual perception by computer. In Proceedings, IEEE Conference on Systems Science and Cybernetics.
• 4: Jeremy S. De Bonet, Multiresolution sampling procedure for analysis and synthesis of texture images, Proceedings of the 24th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.361-368, August 1997 [doi>10.1145/258734.258882]
• 5: Jean-Michel Dischler , Djamchid Ghazanfarpour, Interactive Image-based Modeling of Macrostructured Textures, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, v.19 n.1, p.66-74, January 1999 [doi>10.1109/38.736470]
• 6: Dobbins, A., Zucker, S. W., and Cynader, M. S. 1987. Endstopped neurons in the visual cortex as a substrate for calculating curvature. Nature 329, 6138 (Oct.), 438--441.
• 7: David S. Ebert , F. Kenton Musgrave , Darwyn Peachey , Ken Perlin , Steven Worley, Texturing and modeling: a procedural approach, Academic Press Professional, Inc., San Diego, CA, 1994
• 8: Edvardson, H. and Smedby, O. 2002. Compact and efficient 3D shape description through radial function approximation. In Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine. Vol. 72. 89--97.
• 9: Alexei A. Efros , William T. Freeman, Image quilting for texture synthesis and transfer, Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.341-346, August 2001 [doi>10.1145/383259.383296]
• 10: Alexei A. Efros , Thomas K. Leung, Texture Synthesis by Non-Parametric Sampling, Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Vision-Volume 2, p.1033, September 20-25, 1999
• 11: Geoffrey Y. Gardner, Simulation of natural scenes using textured quadric surfaces, Proceedings of the 11th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.11-20, January 1984
• 12: Gardner, R. J., Hobolth, A., Jensen, E. B. V., and Sørensen, F. B. 2005. Shape discrimination by total curvature, with a view to cancer diagnostics. Journal of Microscopy 217, 1, 49--59.
• 13: Ghazanfarpour, D. and Dischler, J.-M. 1996. Generation of 3D texture using multiple 2D models analysis. Computer Graphics Forum, Proceedings of Eurographics 1996 15, 3, 311--324.
• 14: Gorla, G., Interrante, V., and Sapiro, G. 2001. Growing fitted textures. ACM SIGGRAPH 2001 Sketches and Applications.
• 15: Gurnsey, R. and Fleet, D. J. 2001. Texture space. Vision Research 41, 3, 745--757.
• 16: Hagwood, C. 1990. A mathematical treatment of the spherical stereology. NISTIR 4370, 1--17.
• 17: David J. Heeger , James R. Bergen, Pyramid-based texture analysis/synthesis, Proceedings of the 22nd annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.229-238, September 1995 [doi>10.1145/218380.218446]
• 18: Hobolth, A. 2003. The spherical deformation model. Biostatistics 4, 4, 583--595.
• 19: Hobolth, A. and Jensen, E. B. V. 2002. Stereological analysis of shape. Image Analysis and Stereology 21, Suppl. 1, S23--S29.
• 20: Takeo Igarashi , Satoshi Matsuoka , Hidehiko Tanaka, Teddy: a sketching interface for 3D freeform design, Proceedings of the 26th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.409-416, July 1999 [doi>10.1145/311535.311602]
• 21: Robert Jagnow , Julie Dorsey , Holly Rushmeier, Stereological techniques for solid textures, ACM SIGGRAPH 2004 Papers, August 08-12, 2004, Los Angeles, California
• 22: Keiding, N. and Jensen, S. T. 1972. Maximum likelihood estimation of the size distribution of liver cell nuclei from the observed distribution in a plane section. Biometrics 28, 3 (Sept.), 813--829.
• 23: Sunghee Kim , Haleh Hagh-Shenas , Victoria Interrante, Conveying three-dimensional shape with texture, Proceedings of the 1st Symposium on Applied perception in graphics and visualization, August 07-08, 2004, Los Angeles, California [doi>10.1145/1012551.1012572]
• 24: Patrick Ledda , Alan Chalmers , Tom Troscianko , Helge Seetzen, Evaluation of tone mapping operators using a High Dynamic Range display, ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), v.24 n.3, July 2005
• 25: Lefebvre, L. and Poulin, P. 2000. Analysis and synthesis of structural textures. In Graphics Interface 2000. 77--86.
• 26: Li, Q., Li, F., Shiraishi, J., Katsuragawa, S., Sone, S., and Doi, K. 2003. Investigation of new psychophysical measures for evaluation of similar images on thoracic computed tomography for distinction between benign and malignant nodules. Medical Physics 30, 10 (Oct.), 2584--2593.
• 27: Loncaric, S. 1998. A survey of shape analysis techniques. Pattern Recognition 31, 8, 983--1001.
• 28: Marr, D. and Nishihara, H. K. 1978. Representation and recognition of the spatial organization of three dimensional shapes. In Proceedings of the Royal Society. Vol. B200. 269--294.
• 29: Martens, W. L. and Myszkowski, K. 1998. Psychophysical validation of the visible differences predictor for global illumination applications. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization '98. 49--52.
• 30: Martin, W. N. and Aggarwal, J. K. 1983. Volumetric descriptions of objects from multiple views. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence PAMI-5, 2, 150--158.
• 31: Wojciech Matusik , Chris Buehler , Ramesh Raskar , Steven J. Gortler , Leonard McMillan, Image-based visual hulls, Proceedings of the 27th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.369-374, July 2000 [doi>10.1145/344779.344951]
• 32: Ann McNamara , Alan Chalmers , Tom Troscianko , Iain Gilchrist, Comparing Real & Synthetic Scenes using Human Judgements of Lightness, Proceedings of the Eurographics Workshop on Rendering Techniques 2000, p.207-218, June 26-28, 2000
• 33: Gary W. Meyer , Holly E. Rushmeier , Michael F. Cohen , Donald P. Greenberg , Kenneth E. Torrance, An experimental evaluation of computer graphics imagery, ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), v.5 n.1, p.30-50, Jan. 1986 [doi>10.1145/7529.7920]
• 34: Michael E. Mortenson, Mathematics for Computer Graphics Applications: An Introduction to the Mathematics and Geometry of CAD/Cam, Geometric Modeling, Scientific Visualizati, Industrial Press, Inc., New York, NY, 1999
• 35: Or, Y. H. and Zucker, S. 1989. Texture fields and texture flows: Sensitivity to differences. Spatial Vision 4, 2--3, 131--139.
• 36: Darwyn R. Peachey, Solid texturing of complex surfaces, Proceedings of the 12th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.279-286, July 1985
• 37: Fabio Pellacini , James A. Ferwerda , Donald P. Greenberg, Toward a psychophysically-based light reflection model for image synthesis, Proceedings of the 27th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.55-64, July 2000 [doi>10.1145/344779.344812]
• 38: Ken Perlin, An image synthesizer, Proceedings of the 12th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.287-296, July 1985
• 39: Rushmeier, H. E., Rogowitz, B. E., and Piatko, C. 2000. Perceptual issues in substituting texture for geometry. In Human Vision and Electronic Imaging V. Vol. 3959. 372--383.
• 40: Scassellati, B., Alexopoulos, S., and Flickner, M. 1994. Retrieving images by 2D shape: A comparison of computation methods with human perceptual judgments. In Storage and Retrieval for Image and Video Databases (SPIE). Vol. 2185. 2--14.
• 41: Xin Tong , Jingdan Zhang , Ligang Liu , Xi Wang , Baining Guo , Heung-Yeung Shum, Synthesis of bidirectional texture functions on arbitrary surfaces, Proceedings of the 29th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, July 23-26, 2002, San Antonio, Texas
• 42: Greg Turk, Texture synthesis on surfaces, Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.347-354, August 2001 [doi>10.1145/383259.383297]
• 43: Underwood, E. E. 1970. Quantitative Stereology. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
• 44: James Van Verth , Lars Bishop, Essential Mathematics for Games and Interactive Applications: A Programmer's Guide, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA, 2004
• 45: Benjamin Watson , Alinda Friedman , Aaron McGaffey, Using naming time to evaluate quality predictors for model simplification, Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems, p.113-120, April 01-06, 2000, The Hague, The Netherlands [doi>10.1145/332040.332414]
• 46: Benjamin Watson , Alinda Friedman , Aaron McGaffey, Measuring and predicting visual fidelity, Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.213-220, August 2001 [doi>10.1145/383259.383283]
• 47: Li-Yi Wei, Texture synthesis from multiple sources, ACM SIGGRAPH 2003 Sketches & Applications, July 27-31, 2003, San Diego, California [doi>10.1145/965400.965507]
• 48: Li-Yi Wei , Marc Levoy, Texture synthesis over arbitrary manifold surfaces, Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.355-360, August 2001 [doi>10.1145/383259.383298]
• 49: Weistrand, O. 2001. Shape approximation of starshaped discrete objects. In SCIA01. O--M4B.
• 50: Jingdan Zhang , Kun Zhou , Luiz Velho , Baining Guo , Heung-Yeung Shum, Synthesis of progressively-variant textures on arbitrary surfaces, ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), v.22 n.3, July 2003

INDEX TERMS

Primary Classification:
  I. Computing Methodologies
  I.3 COMPUTER GRAPHICS
      I.3.5 Computational Geometry and Object Modeling
          Subjects: Geometric algorithms, languages, and systems

Additional Classification:
  H. Information Systems
  H.1 MODELS AND PRINCIPLES
      H.1.2 User/Machine Systems
          Subjects: Human factors

General Terms:
Algorithms, Human Factors

Keywords:
Shape estimation, shape perception, solid textures, texture synthesis, volumetric textures