The spatial metaphor for user interfaces: experimental tests of reference by location versus name

ABSTRACT

The enduring dichotomy between spatial and symbolic modes of representation and retrieval acquires an added pragmatic dimension through recent developments in computer-based information retrieval. The standard name-based approach to object reference is now supplemented on some systems by a spatial alternative-often driven by an office or desktop metaphor. Little rigorous evidence is available, however, to support the supposition that spatial memory in itself is more effective than symbolic memory. The accuracy of spatial versus symbolic reference was assessed in three experiments. In Experiment 1 accuracy of location reference in a location-only filing condition was initially comparable to that in a name-only condition, but deteriorated much more rapidly with increases in the number of objects filed. In Experiment 2 subjects placed objects in a two-dimensional space containing landmarks (drawings of a desk, table, filing cabinets, etc.) designed to evoke an office metaphor, and in Experiment 3 subjects placed objects in an actual, three-dimensional mock office. Neither of these enhancements served to improve significantly the accuracy of location reference, and performance remained below that of a name-only condition in Experiment 1. The results raise questions about the utility of spatial metaphor over symbolic filing and highlight the need for continuing research in which considerations of technological and economic feasibility are balanced by considerations of psychological utility.

REFERENCES

• 1: ACREDELO, L. P., PICK, H. L., JR., AND OLSEN, M. G. Environmental differentiation and familiarity as determinants of children's memory for spatial location. Dev. Psychol. 11, 1975, 495-501.
• 2: BOLT, R.A. Filing and retrieving in the future--spatial data management. Paper presented at Infotech "User Friendly Systems" State of the Art Conference (London, 1979).
• 3: COLE, I. Human aspects of office filing: Implications for the electronic office. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society--26th Annual Meeting. Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, Calif., 1982, pp. 59-63.
• 4: CRISTIE, J., AND JUST, M.A. Remembering the location and content of sentences in a prose passage. J. Educ. Psychol. 68, 1976, 702-710.
• 5: CROWDER, R.G. Principles of Learning and Memory. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J., 1976.
• 6: FURNAS, G. W., LANDAUER, T. K., GOMEZ, L. M., AND DUMAIS, S.T. Statistical semantics: Analysis of the potential performance of key-word information systems. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 262, 1983, 1753-1806.
• 7: HASHER, L., AND ZACKS, R.T. Automatic and effortful processes in memory. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 108, 1979, 356-388.
• 8: HYDE, T. S., AND JENKINS, J.J. Differential effects of incidental tasks on the organization of recall of a list of highly associated words. J. Exp. Psychol. 82, 1975, 472-481.
• 9: JONES, W. P., AND LANDAUER, T. K. Context and self-selection effects in name learning. Behav. Inf. Technol. 4, 1985, 3-17.
• 10: LOVELACE, E. A., AND SOUTHALL, S.D. Memory for words in prose and their location on the page. Mem. Cognition 11, 1983, 429-434.
• 11: Thomas W. Malone, How do people organize their desks?: Implications for the design of office information systems, ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS), v.1 n.1, p.99-112, Jan. 1983 [doi>10.1145/357423.357430]
• 12: MANDLER, G., AND PEARLSTONE, Z. Free and constrained concept learning and subsequent recall. J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 5, 1966, 126-131.
• 13: MANDLER, J. M., SEEGMILLER, D., AND DAY, J. On the encoding of spatial information. Mere. Cognition 5, 1977, 10-16.
• 14: ROTHKOPF, E.Z. Incidental memory for location of information in text. J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 10, 1971, 608-613.
• 15: SCHULMAN, A. I. Recognition memory and the recall of spatial location. Mere. Cognition 1, 1973, 256-260.
• 16: TULVING, E., AND THOMPSON, D.M. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychol. Rev. 80, 1973, 352-373.
• 17: YON WRIGHT, J. M., GEBHARD, P., AND KARTTUNEN, M. A developmental study of the recall of spatial location. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 20, 1975, 181-190.
• 18: YATES, F.A. The Art of Memory. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1966.
• 19: ZECHMEISTER, E. B., AND MCKILLIP, J. Recall of place on a page. J. Educ. Psychol. 63, 1972, 446-453.
• 20: ZECHMEISTER, E. B., MCKILLIP, J., PASKO, S., AND BESPALEC, D. Visual memory for place on the page. J. Gen. Psychol. 92, 1975, 43-52.

INDEX TERMS

Classification:
  H. Information Systems
  H.1 MODELS AND PRINCIPLES
      H.1.2 User/Machine Systems
          Subjects: Human factors
  H.3 INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
      H.3.2 Information Storage
          Subjects: File organization
  H.4 INFORMATION SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS

General Terms:
Experimentation, Human Factors, Performance