Research in music and artificial intelligence

ABSTRACT

Although the boundaries of artificial intelligence (AI) remain elusive, computers can now perform musical tasks that were formerly associated exclusively with naturally intelligent musicians. After a historical note, this paper sermonizes on the need for AI techniques in four areas of musical research: composition, performance, music theory, and digital sound processing. The next part surveys recent work involving AI and music. The discussion concentrates on applications in the four areas of research just mentioned. The final part examines how AI techniques of planning and learning could be used to expand the knowledge base and enrich the behavior of musically intelligent systems.

REFERENCES

• 1: ALLEN, J., AND KOOMEN, J. 1983. Planning using a temporal world model. In Proceedings of the 1983 International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. William Kaufmann, Los Altos, Calif.
• 2: ALPHONCE, B. 1980. Music analysis by computer: A field for theory formation. Cornput. Music J. 4, 2, 26-35.
• 3: APEL, W. 1972. Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
• 4: ARVEILLER, J., BATTIER, U., AND ENGLERT, G., EDS. 1976. Entry for J. Arveiller. In Un repertoire d'informatique musicale. Universit~ Paris VIii, Paris.
• 5: ASHTON, A. 1971. Electronics, music, and computers. Tech. Rep. UTEC-CSc-71-117, Computer Science Dept., Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City.
• 6: BABB, W., ED. 1978. Hucbald, Guido, and John on Music. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.
• 7: BALABAN, M. 1981. Toward a computerized analytical research of tonal music. Ph.D. dissertation. Dept. of Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
• 8: BAMBERGER, J. 1975. The development of musical intelligence I: Strategies for representing rhythms. A.I. Memo 342, M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence Lab., Cambridge, Mass.
• 9: BAMBER(~ER, J. 1976a. The development of musical intelligence II: Children's representation of pitch relations. A.I. Memo 401, M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence Lab., Cambridge, Mass.
• 10: BAMBERGER, J. 1976b. Capturing intuitive knowledge in procedural descriptions. A.I. Memo 398, M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence Lab., Cambridge, Mass.
• 11: BAMBERGER, J. 1979. Logo music project: Experiments in musical perception and design. A.I. Memo 523, M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence Lab., Cambridge, Mass.
• 12: BARONI, M. 1982. A project of a grammar of melody. Unpublished manuscript.
• 13: BARONI, M., AND JACOBONI, g. 1975. Analysis and generation of Bach's chorale melodies. In Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on the Semiotics of Music, G. Stefani, Ed. Centro di Iniziativa Culturale, Pesaro, Italy.
• 14: BARONI, M., AND JACOBONI, R. 1978. Proposal for a Grammar of Melody. Les Presses de l'Universit~ de MontreM, Montreal, Canada.
• 15: BARR, A., FEiGENBAUM, E., AND COHEN, P., EDS. 1980. Handbook of Artificial intelligence, vols. 1-3. William Kaufmann, Los Altos, Calif.
• 16: BAWDEN, A., GREENBLATT, R., HOLLOWAY, J., KNIGHT, T., MOON, D., AND WEINREB, D. 1979. LISP machine progress report. In Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective, P. Winston and R. Brown, Eds. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., pp. 347-373.
• 17: BEN DANIEL, M. 1983. Automated transcription of music. B.Sc. thesis, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass.
• 18: BISCHOFF, J., GOLD, R., AND HORTON, J. 1978. Music for an interactive network of microprocessors. Comput. Music J. 2, 3, 24-29. Revised and updated version in Foundations of Computer Music, C. Roads and J. Strawn, Eds. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1985.
• 19: BLUM, T., ABBOTT, C., AUSTIN, L., BATrlER, M., BEAUCHAMP, J., DASHOW, J., FULLER, W., GROSS, D., HARGE, E., KENDALL, G., LASKE, O., LOY, G., MARC, J., PENNYCOOK, B., POPE, S., AND STRAWN, J. 1983. Report on the 1982 International Computer Music Conference. Comput. Music J. 7, 2, 8-35.
• 20: BOALCH, D. 1956. Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord, 1440-1840. Macmillan, New York.
• 21: BOODY, C., AND REIDEL, J. 1981. A computer-aided study of Ecuadorean urban music. Comput. Humanities 15, 2, 61-74.
• 22: BORNING, A. 1979. Thinglab--A constraint-oriented simulation laboratory. SSL-79-3, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, Paid Alto, Calif.
• 23: BROOtE, M., AND ZiLLES, S., EDS. 1981. Proceedings of the Conference on Data Abstraction, Databases, and Conceptual Modeling. SIGART Newsl. (ACM) 74.
• 24: BUCHNER, A. 1978. Mechanical Musical Instruments, I. Irwin, Transl. Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn.
• 25: BUXTON, W., ED. 1977. Entry for D. I., Baggi. In Computer Music 1976/77: A Directory of Current Work. Commission for UNESCO, Ottawa, Canada.
• 26: BUXTON, W. 1983. Continuous hand-gesture driven input. Paper presented at Graphics Interface '83.
• 27: BUXTON, W., PATEL, S., SNIDERMAN, R., REEVES, W., PATEL, S., AND BAECKER, R. 1979. The evolution of the SSSP score editing tools. Comput. Music J. 3, 4, 14-25.
• 28: BUXTON, W., PATEL, S., REEVES, W., AND BAECKER, R. 1981. Scope in interactive score editors. Comput. Music J. 5, 3, 50-56.
• 29: CANN, R. 1979. Analysis/synthesis tutorial. Comput. Music J. 3, 3, 6-11; 3, 4, 9-13.
• 30: CANN, R. 1980. An analysis synthesis tutorial. Comput. Music J. 4, 1, 36-42.
• 31: CHADABE, J. 1984. Interactive composing. Comput. Music J. 8, 1, 22-27.
• 32: CHAFE, C., MONT-REYNAUD, B., AND RUSH, L. 1982. Toward an intelligent editor for digital audio: Recognition of musical constructs. Cornput. Music J. 6, 1, 30-41.
• 33: CHOMSKY, N. 1957. Syntactic Structures. Mouton, The Hagu.e.
• 34: CHOMSKY, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
• 35: COIN?E, J.-P. 1983. Manuel FORMES. IRCAM, Paris.
• 36: COINTE, J.-P., AND RODET, X. 1984. Formes: Composition and scheduling of processes. Comput. Music J. 8, 3, 32-50.
• 37: CO~ER, W. 1972. Music and Meaning. The Free Press, New York.
• 38: DANNENBERG, R. 1984. An on-line algorithm for real-time accompaniment. In Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference, 1984, W. Buxton, Ed. Computer Music Association, San Francisco.
• 39: DOLSON, M. 1982. A tracking phase vocoder and its use in the analysis of ensemble sounds. Ph.D. dissertation, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena.
• 40: EBCIOGLU, K. 1980. Strict counterpoint by computer, In Proceedings of the 1980 International Computer Music Conference, H. S. Howe, Jr., Ed. Computer Music Association, San Francisco.
• 41: ENGLERT, G. 1981. Automated composition/composed automation. Comput. Music J. 5, 4, 30-35.
• 42: Lee D. Erman , Frederick Hayes-Roth , Victor R. Lesser , D. Raj Reddy, The Hearsay-II Speech-Understanding System: Integrating Knowledge to Resolve Uncertainty, ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), v.12 n.2, p.213-253, June 1980 [doi>10.1145/356810.356816]
• 43: EVANS, T. 1968. A program for a solution of a class of geometric analogy intelligence test questions. In Semantic Information Processing, M. Minsky, Ed. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
• 44: FOSTER, S., SCHLOSS, W., AND ROCKMORE, A. 1982. Toward an intelligent editor for digital audio. Comput. Music J. 6, 1, 42-51.
• 45: FRY, C. 1980. Computer improvisation. Comput. Music J. 4, 3, 48-58.
• 46: GREUSSAY, P., ARVEILLER, J., BATTIER, M., COLERE, C., DALMASSO, G., ENGLERT, G., AND RONCIN, D. 1980. Musical software: Descriptions and abstractions of sound generation and mixing. Comput. Music J. 4, 3, 40-47.
• 47: HAUS, G. 1983. EMPS: A system for graphic transcription of electronic music scores. Comput. Music J. 7, 3, 31-36.
• 48: HILLER, L. 1970. Music composed with computers: A historical survey, in The Computer and Music, H. Lincoln, Ed. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y.
• 49: HILLER, L., AND ISAACSON, L. 1959. Experimental Mus/c. McGraw-Hill, New York.
• 50: HOLTZMAN, S. 1977. A program for key determination. Interface 6, 29-56.
• 51: HOLTZMAN, S. 1981. Using generative grammars for music composition. Comput. Music J. 5, 1, 51-64.
• 52: IMBERTY, M. 1976. Signification and meaning in music. Monographies de s~miologie et d'analyses musicales III. Univ. of Montreal, Montreal, Canada.
• 53: IMBERTY, M. 1979. Entendre la musique: s~mantique psychologique de la musique. Dunod, Paris.
• 54: 4INTERNATIONAL MIDI ASSOCIATION. 1983. MIDI 1.0 Specification. International MIDI Association, North Hollywood, Calif.
• 55: JONES, K. 1981. Compositional applications of stochastic processes. Comput. Music J. 5, 2, 45-61.
• 56: KASSLER, M., AND HOWE, H. S. 1980. Computer Music. In Grove's Dictionary of Music and Music/ans, S. Sladie, Ed. Macmillan, London.
• 57: KIRCHMEYER, H. 1962. On the historical construction of rationalistic music. Die Reihe 8, 11-29.
• 58: Prentiss Hadley Knowlton, Interactive communication and display of keyboard music, 1971
• 59: KNOWLTON, P. 1972. Capture and display of keyboard music. Datamation 5 (May).
• 60: KOENIG, G. M. 1970. Project one. Electronic Music Reps. 2. Reprinted 1977 by Swets and Zeitlinger, Amsterdam.
• 61: KORNFELD, W. 1981. Everything you always wanted to know about MUZACS but were afraid to grovel through the code to find out. Lecture, M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence Lab., Cambridge, Mass.
• 62: L^SKE, 0. 1973a. Musical semantics: A procedural point of view. In Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on the Semiotics of Music, G. Stefani, Ed. Centro di Iniziativa Culturale, Pesaro, Italy.
• 63: LASKE, O. 1973b. Toward a musical intelligence system: OBSERVER. Numus-West 4, 73, 11-16.
• 64: L^SKE, O. 1978. Considering human memory in designing user interfaces for computer music. Cornput. Music J. 2, 4, 39-45.
• 65: LASKE, O. 1983. Models of musical planning. Lecture presented at the NEWCOMP Summer Course in Computer Music (Boston, Mass., Aug.).
• 66: LASKE, O. 1984. KEITH: A rule system for making music-analytical discoveries. In Musical Grammars and Computer Analysis, M. Baroni and L. Callegari, Eds. Leo S. Olschki Editore, Florence, Italy.
• 67: LEICHTENTRITT, H. 1934. Mechanical music in olden times. Musical Quart. 20, 15-26.
• 68: LERDAHL, F., AND JACKENDOFF, a. 1977. Toward a formal theory of tonal music. J. Music Theor. 21, 1, 110-171.
• 69: LERD^HL, F., AND JACKENDOFF, R. 1983. A Generative Theory of Tonal Harmony. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
• 70: LEVITT, D. 1981. A melody description system for jazz improvisation. M.S. thesis, M.I.T. Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Cambridge, Mass.
• 71: LEVITT, D. 1983. Learning music by imitating. Unpublished manuscript.
• 72: 2LEVY, M. 1975. On the problem of defining musical units. In Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on the Semiotics of Music, G. Stefani, Ed. Centro di Iniziativa Culturale, Pesaro, Italy.
• 73: LIDOV, D. 1975. On musical phrase. Monographies de semiologie et d'analyse musicales. Groupe, de recherches en semiologie musicale, Univ. of Montreal, Montreal, Canada.
• 74: LIDOV, D., AND GABURA, J. 1973. Toward a formal theory of melody. Comput. Humanities 4, 3/4, 138-148.
• 75: LIEBERMAN, H. 1982. Machine Tongues IX: Objectoriented programming. Comput. Music. J. 6, 3, 8-21.
• 76: LINCOLN, H., ED. 1970. The Computer and Music. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y.
• 77: LINCOLN, H. 1973. Uses of the computer in music composition and research. In Advances in Computers, M. Rubinoff, Ed. Academic Press, Orlando, Fla.
• 78: MANDLER, G. 1975. Mind and Emotion. Wiley, New York.
• 79: MATHEWS, M. 1969. The Technology of Computer Music. MiT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
• 80: MEEHAN, J. 1980. An artificial intelligence approach to tonal music theory. Comput. Music J. 4, 2, 60-65.
• 81: MEYER, L. B. 1956. Emotion and Meaning in Music. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• 82: MICHALSKI, R., CARBONELL, J., AND MITCHELL, W. EDS. 1983. Machine Learning. Tioga, Palo Alto, Calif.
• 83: Marvin Minsky, A Framework for Representing Knowledge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1974
• 84: MINSKY, M. 1979. The Society Theory of Thinking. In Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective, vol. 1, P. Winston and R. Brown, Eds. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
• 85: MINSKY, M. 1981. Music, mind, and meaning. Cornput. Music J. 5, 3, 8-44.
• 86: James Anderson Moorer, Music and computer composition, Communications of the ACM, v.15 n.2, p.104-113, Feb. 1972 [doi>10.1145/361254.361265]
• 87: MOORER, J. A. 1975. On the segmentation and analysis of continuous musical sound. Rep. STAN- M-3. Dept. of Music, Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif.
• 88: MOORER, J. A. 1978. Use of the phase vocoder in computer music applications. J. Audio Eng. Soc. 26, 1/2, 42-45.
• 89: MOORER, J. A. 1979. The use of linear prediction in computer music applications. J. Audio Eng. Soc. 27, 3, 134-140.
• 90: MYHILL, J., AND EBCIOGLU, K. 1983. An expert system for Schenkerian synthesis of chorales in the style of J. S. Bach. Unpublished manuscript.
• 91: NARMOUR, E. 1977. Beyond Schenkerism. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• 92: NEWELL, A., NEWELL, A., B^RNETT, J., GREEN, C., KLATT, D., LICKLIDER, J., MUNSON, J., REDDY, R., ^NO WOODS, W. 1973. Speech Understanding Systems. North-Holland, Amsterdam.
• 93: NII, H., AND FEIGENBAUM, E. 1978. Rule-based understanding of signals. In Pattern-Directed Inference Systems, D. Waterman and F. Hayes-Roth, Eds. Academic Press, Orlando, Fla.
• 94: Nil, H., FEIGENBAUM, E., ANTON, J., AND ROCK- MORE, A. 1982. Signal-to-symbol transformation: HASP/SIAM case study. AI Mag. 3, 2, 23-35.
• 95: ORD-HUME, A. W. J. G. 1983. Cogs and crochets: A view of mechanical music. Early Music 11, 2, 167-171.
• 96: PISZCZALSKI, N., AND GALLER, B. 1979a. Spectral surfaces in performed music. Comput. Music J. 3, 1, 18-24.
• 97: PISZCZALSKi, N., AND GALLER, B. 1979b. Spectral surfaces in performed music. Comput. Music j. 3, 2, 25-27.
• 98: PORTNOFF, M. 1976. Implementation of the digital phase vocoder using the fast Fourier transform. IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech, Signal Process. ASSP-24, 3, 243-248.
• 99: Gary M. Rader, A method for composing simple traditional music by computer, Communications of the ACM, v.17 n.11, p.631-638, Nov. 1974 [doi>10.1145/361179.361200]
• 100: RAHN, J. 1980. On some computational models of music theory. Comput. Music J. 4, 2, 66-72.
• 101: ROADS, C. 1978. Composing grammars. In Proceedings of the 1977 International Computer Music Conference, C. Roads, Ed. Computer Music Association, San Francisco.
• 102: Curtis Roads , John Strawn, Foundations of computer music, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1985
• 103: ROADS, C. 1980. Interview with Marvin Minsky. Comput. Music J. 4, 3, 25-39.
• 104: ROADS, C. 1981. An intelligent composer's assistant. M.I.T. Experimental Music Studio, Cambridge, Mass.
• 105: ROADS, C. 1983a. Interactive orchestration based on score analysis, in Proceedings of the 1983 International Computer Music Conference (Venice, Italy), J. Strawn and T. Blum, Eds. Computer Music Association, San Francisco.
• 106: ROADS, C. 1983b. A report on SPIRE: An interactive audio processing environment. Comput. Music J. 7, 2, 70-74.
• 107: ROAOS, C. 1984. An overview of music representations. In Musical Grammars and Computer Analysis, M. Baroni and L. Callegari, Eds. Leo S. Olschki Editore, Florence, Italy.
• 108: ROADS, C. 1985a. Composers and the Computer. William A. Kaufmann, Los Altos, Calif.
• 109: ROAOS, C. 1985b. Improvisation with George Lewis. In Composers and the Computer, C. Roads, Ed. William A. Kaufmann, Los Altos, Calif.
• 110: ROADS, C. 1986. The Tsukuba musical robot. Comput. Music J. 10, 1.
• 111: ROANS, C.N.d. A History of Computer Music. William A. Kaufmann, Los Altos, Calif. In press.
• 112: Curtis Roads , John Strawn, Foundations of computer music, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1985
• 113: Curtis Roads , John Strawn , Curtis Abbott , John Gordon , Philip Greenspun, The computer music tutorial, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996
• 114: RODET, X., POTARD, Y., AND BARRI~RE, J. B. 1984. The Chant project: From synthesis of the singing voice to synthesis in general. Comput. Music J. 8, 3, 15-31.
• 115: ROTHGEB, J. 1968. Harmonizing the unfigured bass: A computational Study. Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Music, Yale Univ., New Haven. Conn.
• 116: ROTHGEB, J. 1980. Simulating musical skills by digital computer. Comput. Music J. 4, 2, 36-40.
• 117: ROWE, N. 1975. Machine perception of musical rhythm. B.S. thesis. Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass.
• 118: Erik Sandewall, Programming in an Interactive Environment: the ``Lisp'' Experience, ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), v.10 n.1, p.35-71, March 1978 [doi>10.1145/356715.356719]
• 119: SCHANK, R., AND ABLESON, H. 1977. Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J.
• 120: SCHOTTSTAEOT, B. 1983. Pla: A composer's idea of a language. Comput. Music J. 7, 1, 11-20.
• 121: SHIPMAN, D. 1983. SpireX: Statistical analysis in the Spire acoustic/phonetic workstation. Paper presented at the IEEE Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (Boston, April).
• 122: SIMON, E. 1960. Mechanische Musikinstrumente fri~herer Zeiten und ihre Musik. Breitkopf und H~irtel, Wiesbaden, West Germany.
• 123: SIMON, H., AND SUMNER, R. 1968. Pattern in music. In Formal Representations of Human Judgement, B. Kleinmutz, Ed. Wiley, New York.
• 124: SMITH, L. 1973. Editing and printing music by computer. J. Music Theor. 17, 292-309.
• 125: SMOLIAR, S. 1971. A parallel processing model of musical structures. AI-TR-91. Artificial Intelligence Lab., M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass.
• 126: SMOLIAR, S. 1974. Process structuring and music theory. J. Music Theor. 18, 2 (Summer), 308-336.
• 127: SMOLIAR, S. 1980. A computer aid for Schenkerian analysis. Comput. Music J. 4, 2, 41-59.
• 128: SNELL, J. 1979. Design for a formal system for deriving tonal music. M.A. thesis. Dept. of Music, State Univ. of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, N.Y.
• 129: Guy L. Steele, Jr., The Definition and Implementation of a Computer Programming Language Based on Constraints, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1980
• 130: Luc Steels, Reasoning Modeled As A Society Of Communicating Experts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1979
• 131: L. Steels, Constraints as consultants, Selected and updated papers from the proceedings of the 1982 European conference on Progress in artificial intelligence, p.146-165, June 1985, Orsay, France
• 132: STOCKHAUSEN, K. 1978. Elektronische Musik und Automatik. In Texte zur Musik: 1963-1970. DuMont Schauberg, Cologne, West Germany.
• 133: STRAWN, Z. 1980. Approximation and syntactic analysis of amplitude and frequency functions for digital synthesis. Comput. Music J. 4, 3, 3-23.
• 134: STRAWN, J. ED. 1985a. Digital Audio Signal Processing: An Anthology. William Kaufmann, Los Altos, Calif.
• 135: John Strawn , P. Samson , F. R. Moore , J. A. Moorer , R. Talambiras, Digital Audio Engineering: An Anthology, A-R Editions, Inc., Madison, WI, 1985
• 136: STRAWN, J. 1985c. Modelling transitions in musical instruments. Ph.D. dissertation. Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif.
• 137: SUSSMAN, G., AND STEELE, G. 1981. Constraints: A language for expressing almost-hierarchical descriptions. A.I. Memo 502A. Artificial Intelligence Lab., M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass. Reprinted in Arti{. InteU. 14, 1-39.
• 138: ULRICH, W. 1977. The analysis and synthesis of jazz by computer. In Proceedings o{ the 5th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Morgan Kaufman, Los Altos, Calif.
• 139: VARgSE, E. 1971. The liberation of sound. In Perspectives on American Composers, B. Boretz and E. Cone, Eds. Norton, New York.
• 140: VERCOE, B. 1984. The synthetic performer in the context of live performance. In Proceedings o{ the international Computer Music Conference, 1984, W. Buxton, Ed. Computer Music Association, San Francisco.
• 141: WINOGRAD, T. 1968. Linguistics and the computer analysis of tonal harmony. J. Music Theor. 12, 2- 49.
• 142: WINOGRAD, T. 1973. A procedural model of language understanding, in Computer Models o{ Thought and Language, R. Schank and K. Colby, Eds. Freeman, San Francisco.
• 143: WINOGRAD, T. 1977. Five lectures on artificial intelligence. In Linguistic Structures Processing, A. Zampoli, Ed. North-Holland, Amsterdam.
• 144: WINSTON, P. 1975. Learning structural descriptions from examples. In The Psychology of Computer Vision. McGraw-Hill, New York.
• 145: WINSTON, P. 1979. Learning by creating and justifying transfer frames. In Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective, vol. 1, P. Winston, Ed. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
• 146: Patrick H. Winston, Learning and reasoning by analogy, Communications of the ACM, v.23 n.12, p.689-703, Dec. 1980 [doi>10.1145/359038.359042]
• 147: P. H. Winston , B. K. Horn, LISP, Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc., Boston, MA, 1988
• 148: Patrick Henry Winston, Artificial intelligence (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc., Boston, MA, 1984
• 149: Wooos, W. 1981a. Procedural semantics as a theory of meaning. Rep. 4627, Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Cambridge, Mass.
• 150: Wooos, W. 1981b. Research in knowledge representation for natural language understanding. Rep. 4785, Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Cambridge, Mass.
• 151: XENAKIS, I. 1971. Formalized Music. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Ind.
• 152: YAVELOW, C. 1985. Music software for the Apple Macintosh. Comput. Music J. 9, 3.
• 153: ZARIPOV, R. 1969. Cybernetics and music. Perspectives New Music 7, 2 (Spring/Summer), 115-154.

INDEX TERMS

Classification:
  I. Computing Methodologies
  I.2 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

  J. Computer Applications
  J.5 ARTS AND HUMANITIES
      Subjects: Music**

General Terms:
Design, Experimentation