Reflectance and texture of real-world surfaces

ABSTRACT

In this work, we investigate the visual appearance of real-world surfaces and the dependence of appearance on the geometry of imaging conditions. We discuss a new texture representation called the BTF (bidirectional texture function) which captures the variation in texture with illumination and viewing direction. We present a BTF database with image textures from over 60 different samples, each observed with over 200 different combinations of viewing and illumination directions. We describe the methods involved in collecting the database as well as the importqance and uniqueness of this database for computer graphics. A related quantity to the BTF is the familiar BRDF (bidirectional reflectance distribution function). The measurement methods involved in the BTF database are conducive to simultaneous measurement of the BRDF. Accordingly, we also present a BRDF database with reflectance measurements for over 60 different samples, each observed with over 200 different combinations of viewing and illumination directions. Both of these unique databases are publicly available and have important implications for computer graphics.

REFERENCES

• 1: ASTM. Standard E1392-90, Standard practice for angle resolved optical scatter measurements on specular or diffuse surfaces. American Society for Testing and Materials.
• 2: Barry G. Becker , Nelson L. Max, Smooth transitions between bump rendering algorithms, Proceedings of the 20th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.183-190, September 1993 [doi>10.1145/166117.166141]
• 3: BETTY, C. L., FUNG, A. K., AND IRONS, J. 1996. The measured polarized bidirectional reflectance distribution function of a spectralon calibration target. In Proceedings of IGARSS '96, IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (Lincoln, NE, May 27-31) 2183-2185.
• 4: James F. Blinn, Models of light reflection for computer synthesized pictures, Proceedings of the 4th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.192-198, July 20-22, 1977, San Jose, California
• 5: James F. Blinn, Simulation of wrinkled surfaces, Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.286-292, August 23-25, 1978
• 6: BORN, M. AND WOLF, E. 1959. Principles of Optics, Pergamon, New York.
• 7: CHATTERJEE, S. 1993. Classification of natural textures using Gaussian Markov random fields. In Markov Random Fields: Theory and Applications, Academic Press, Boston, 159-177.
• 8: K. J. Dana , S. K. Nayar, Histogram Model for 3D Textures, Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, p.618, June 23-25, 1998
• 9: DANA, K. J., VAN GINNEKEN, B., NAYAR, S. K., AND KOENDERINK, J.J. 1996. Reflectance and texture of real-world surfaces. Columbia University, Tech. Rep. CUCS-048-96, Dec.
• 10: Kristin J. Dana , Shree K. Nayar , Bram Van Ginneken , Jan J. Koenderink, Reflectance and Texture of Real-World Surfaces Authors, Proceedings of the 1997 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR '97), p.151, June 17-19, 1997
• 11: Paul E. Debevec , Camillo J. Taylor , Jitendra Malik, Modeling and rendering architecture from photographs: a hybrid geometry- and image-based approach, Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, p.11-20, August 1996 [doi>10.1145/237170.237191]
• 12: Bram Van Ginneken , Jan J. Koenderink , Kristin J. Dana, Texture histograms as a function of irradiation and viewing direction, International Journal of Computer Vision, v.31 n.2-3, p.169-184, April 1999 [doi>10.1023/A:1008018015948]
• 13: VAN GINNEKEN, B., STAVRIDI, M., AND KOENDERINK, J.J. 1998. Diffuse and specular reflectance from rough surfaces. Appl. Opt. 37 (Jan.), 130-139.
• 14: GOURAUD, H.1971. Continuous shading of curves surfaces. IEEE Trans. Comput. (June), 623-629.
• 15: Paul S Heckbert, Survey of texture mapping, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, v.6 n.11, p.56-67, November 1986 [doi>10.1109/MCG.1986.276672]
• 16: HERREN, K.A. 1989. Measurements of polarization scattering in the vacuum ultraviolet. In Polarization Considerations for Optical Systems II, Proceedings of the SPIE (San Diego, CA, Aug. 9-11), Vol. 1166, 33-41.
• 17: HOWARD, T. L., GEORGE, P. M., FLAMMANG, S., AND MOSSMAN, D. 1989. Vacuum BRDF measurements of cryogenic optical surfaces. In Scatter from Optical Components, Proceedings of the SPIE (San Diego, CA, Aug. 8-10), Vol. 1165, 350-359.
• 18: Berthold K. P. Horn , Michael J. Brooks, Shape from shading, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1989
• 19: KARNER, K. F., MAYER, H., AND GERVAUTZ, M. 1996. An image based measurement system for anisotropic reflection. Comput. Graph. Forum (EUROGRAPHICS '96) 15, 3 (Aug.), 119-28.
• 20: KASHYAP, R.L. 1984. Characterization and estimation of two-dimensional ARMA models. IEEE Trans. Inf. Theor. IT-30, 5 (Sept.), 736-745.
• 21: KOENDERINK, J. J. AND VAN DOORN, A.J. 1996. Illuminance texture due to surface mesostructure. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 13, 3, 452-463.
• 22: Jan J. Koenderink , Andrea J. van Doorn , Marigo Stavridi, Bidirectional Reflection Distribution Function Expressed in Terms of Surface Scattering Modes, Proceedings of the 4th European Conference on Computer Vision-Volume II, p.28-39, April 15-18, 1996
• 23: Jan J. Koenderink , Andrea J. Van Doorn , Kristin J. Dana , Shree Nayar, Bidirectional Reflection Distribution Function of Thoroughly Pitted Surfaces, International Journal of Computer Vision, v.31 n.2-3, p.129-144, April 1999 [doi>10.1023/A:1008061730969]
• 24: J. Krumm , S. A. Shafer, Texture segmentation and shape in the same image, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Computer Vision, p.121, June 20-23, 1995
• 25: Thomas Leung , Jitendra Malik, On Perpendicular Texture: Why do we see more flowers in the distance?, Proceedings of the 1997 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR '97), p.807, June 17-19, 1997
• 26: J. P. Lewis, Algorithms for solid noise synthesis, ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, v.23 n.3, p.263-270, July 1989
• 27: LI, Z., FUNG, A. K., GIBBS, D., BETTY, C. L., TJUATJA, S., AND IRONS, J.R. 1994. A modeling study of bidirectional reflectance from soil surfaces. In Proceedings of IGARSS '94, IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (Pasadena, CA, Aug. 8-12), 1835-1837.
• 28: MARX, E. AND VORBURGER, T. V. 1989. Light scattered by random rough surfaces and roughness determination. In Scatter from Optical Components, Proceedings of the SPIE (Aug.), Vol. 1,165, 72-86.
• 29: NAYAR, S. K. AND OREN, M. 1995. Visual appearance of matte surfaces. Science 267 (Feb.), 1153-1156.
• 30: Shree K. Nayar , Katsushi Ikeuchi , Takeo Kanade, Surface Reflection: Physical and Geometrical Perspectives, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, v.13 n.7, p.611-634, July 1991 [doi>10.1109/34.85654]
• 31: NICODEMUS, F.E. 1970. Reflectance nomenclature and directional reflectance and emissivity. Appl. Opt. 9, 1474-1475.
• 32: NICODEMUS, F. E., RICHMON, J. C., HSIA, J. J., GINSBERG, I. W., AND LIMPERIS, T. 1977. Geometric considerations and nomenclature for reflectance. NBS Monograph 160, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, Oct.
• 33: NOLIN, A. W., STEFFEN, K., AND DOZIER, J. 1994. Measurement and modeling of the bidirectional reflectance of snow. In Proceedings of IGARSS '94, IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (Pasadena, CA, Aug. 8-12), 1919-1921.
• 34: Michael Oren , Shree K. Nayar, Generalization of the Lambertian model and implications for machine vision, International Journal of Computer Vision, v.14 n.3, p.227-251, April 1995 [doi>10.1007/BF01679684]
• 35: PATEL, M. A. S. AND COHEN, F. S. 1992. Shape from texture using Markov random field models and stereo-windows. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on CVPR (Champaign, IL, June 15-18), 290-305.
• 36: Darwyn R. Peachey, Solid texturing of complex surfaces, ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, v.19 n.3, p.279-286, Jul. 1985
• 37: Ken Perlin, An image synthesizer, ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, v.19 n.3, p.287-296, Jul. 1985
• 38: K. Perlin , E. M. Hoffert, Hypertexture, ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, v.23 n.3, p.253-262, July 1989
• 39: PICARD, R. W., KABIR, T., AND LIU, F. 1993. Real-time recognition with the entire Brodatz texture database. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on CVPR (New York, NY, June 15-17), 638-639.
• 40: Pierre Poulin , Alain Fournier, A model for anisotropic reflection, ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, v.24 n.4, p.273-282, Aug. 1990
• 41: SAKAS, G. AND KERNKE, B. 1994. Texture shaping: A method for modeling arbitrarily shaped volume objects in texture space. In Photorealistic Rendering in Computer Graphics, Proceedings of the Second Eurographics Workshop on Rendering, Springer-Verlag, New York, 206-218.
• 42: SANDMEIER, S., SANDMEIER, W., ITTEN, K. I., SCHAEPMAN, M. E., AND KELLENBERGER, T. W. 1995. The Swiss field-goniometer system. In Proceedings of IGARSS '95, IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (July), 2078-2080.
• 43: SCHLUESSEL, D., DICKINSON, R. E., PRIVETTE, J. L., EMERY, W. J., AND KOKALY, R. 1994. Modeling the bidirectional reflectance distribution function of mixed finite plant canopies and soil. J. Geophys. Res. 99, D5 (May), 10577-600.
• 44: STAVRIDI, M., VAN GINNEKEN, B., AND KOENDERINK, J.J. 1997. Surface bidirectional reflection distribution function and the texture of bricks and tiles. Appl. Opt. 36, 16 (June), 3717-3725.
• 45: STOVER, J.C. 1989. Scatter from optical components: An overview. In Scatter from Optical Components, Proceedings of the SPIE (San Francisco, CA, Aug. 8-10), Vol. 1165, 2-9.
• 46: P. -H. Suen , G. Healey, Analyzing the Bidirectional Texture Function, Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, p.753, June 23-25, 1998
• 47: Boaz J. Super , Alan C. Bovik, Shape from Texture Using Local Spectral Moments, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, v.17 n.4, p.333-343, April 1995 [doi>10.1109/34.385983]
• 48: Hemant D. Tagare , Rui J. P. DeFigueiredo, A framework for the construction of reflectance maps for machine vision, CVGIP: Image Understanding, v.57 n.3, p.265-282, May 1993 [doi>10.1006/ciun.1993.1019]
• 49: TORRANCE, K. E. AND SPARROW, E.M. 1967. Theory for off-specular reflection from roughened surfaces. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 57, 9, 1105-1114.
• 50: L. Wang , G. Healey, Illumination and geometry invariant recognition of texture in color images, Proceedings of the 1996 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR '96), p.419, June 18-20, 1996
• 51: Gregory J. Ward, Measuring and modeling anisotropic reflection, ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, v.26 n.2, p.265-272, July 1992
• 52: Stephen H. Westin , James R. Arvo , Kenneth E. Torrance, Predicting reflectance functions from complex surfaces, ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, v.26 n.2, p.255-264, July 1992
• 53: WOLFF, L. B. 1994. A diffuse reflectance model for smooth dielectrics. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A--Special Issue on Physics Based Machine Vision (Nov.), 2956-2968.
• 54: WOODHAM, R.J. 1980. Photometric methods for determining surface orientation from multiple images. Opt. Eng. 19, 1, 139-144.
• 55: Zhi-Yan Xie , Michael Brady, Texture Segmentation Using Local Energy in Wavelet Scale Space, Proceedings of the 4th European Conference on Computer Vision-Volume I, p.304-313, April 15-18, 1996

INDEX TERMS

Primary Classification:
  I. Computing Methodologies
  I.2 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
        I.2.10 Vision and Scene Understanding
            Subjects: Intensity, color, photometry, and thresholding

Additional Classification:
  I. Computing Methodologies
  I.2 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
        I.2.10 Vision and Scene Understanding
            Subjects: Texture
  I.3 COMPUTER GRAPHICS
      I.3.5 Computational Geometry and Object Modeling
          Subjects: Physically based modeling
  I.4 IMAGE PROCESSING AND COMPUTER VISION
      I.4.1 Digitization and Image Capture
          Subjects: Radiometry; Imaging geometry
      I.4.7 Feature Measurement
          Subjects: Texture
      I.4.8 Scene Analysis
          Subjects: Photometry

General Terms:
Experimentation, Measurement